Rapid urbanization takes place together with a rapid increase in urban poverty, urban food security and a number of environmental problems.
By 2020 the developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America will be home to some 75% of all urban dwellers. It is expected that by 2020, 85% of the poor in Latin America, and about 40-45% of the poor in Africa and Asia will be concentrated in towns and cities.
Most cities in developing countries have difficulties to cope with this development and are unable to create sufficient formal employment opportunities for the poor. They also have increasing problems with the disposal of urban waste and maintaining air and river water quality.
(RUAF,IDRC,IIRC,2006)
Urban agriculture provides a complementary strategy to reduce urban poverty and food security and enhance urban environment. It plays an
Important role in urban waste management, local economic development, social inclusion of the urban poor. Specially urban agriculture leads to greening and cleaning of the city by turning derelict open spaces into green zones free of housing with positive impact on micro climate
(Shade, Temperature, sequestration of Co2).
Urban agriculture is embedded in- and interacting with the urban ecosystem, being influenced by urban policies and plans. It s an integral part of the urban system. A global estimate is that 15-20% of the world’s food is produced in urban areas(Margaret Armar-2000)
The most important that the use of urban waste(household-commercial-institutional)and waste water in farming cities, gives number of benefits to farmers, urban authorities and to city environment. Other end that improper use of urban waste/waste water leads to serious health hazards in human.
Next fact, which more people argued and recently found that the agricultural crops cultivated in roadside also contain unfavorable chemical compounds for human health.(Kampala city,Uganda-2007)
Urban soils which is closer to roads with high traffic, often contain high concentration of heavy metals, including lead, Cadmium and zinc, which seriously affect on human health, specially in children. Direct link has been proved between distance from roads and heavy metal concentrations in soil. Researchers argued that fuel exhaust are the most serious source(New Agriculturist, July 2007 )
Many challenges in farming cities,…”.How to overcome the problems in use of urban waste and road side farming in cities??”
Dear participants, What are your opinions ,to find the right balance between benefits and health risks presented by urban farming,.. to achieve productive and sustainable cities in future.
(This Topic is posted by SANDYA)
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11 comments:
In response to Sandya, Akompab says
Urban agriculture is a phenomenon with global reach. A 1995 study of the United Nations Development Program UNDP found that 15 percent of produce consumed around the globe is actually grown in urban areas .Unlike the urban agriculture in developed nations, , urban agriculture in developing nations is characterized more as a surviving strategy for the poor.
Research in many cities has found that, urban soils are often containing high concentrations of heavy metals like lead, cadmium and zinc. These heavy metals pose severe problems. To overcome some of these problems, Nabulo (2007), propose a series of recommendations to agriculture.
-Maize is recommended for road side cultivation because the grain exhaust fumes by outside leaves and only insignificant amounts of heavy metals reach the grain through the plants root.
-Legumes such as peas and beans are also recommended though the outer pods should not be eaten.
-washing is recommended for all vegetables that might be contaminated by atmospheric deposition.
To further reduce these problems,Henke(2001)suggest that there should be zoning exercise to separate areas suitable for cultivation, roadside planting of hedges and is protected from trees to reduce the spread of the air pollution, Leafy vegetables should not be grown 30m off the road.
In order to get the right balance between benefit and health risks presented by urban farming, it is better to apply transdisciplinary frameworks to health and urban agriculture (Cole et al 1998). These frameworks include;
1 Project based environmental health impact assessment which is based on identifying the health risks and narrowing the possibilities to those of great concern. This may involve discussion with multiple stakeholders to draw in their knowledge of perception.
2 Regulatory based environmental health risk assessment which focuses on particular health hazards of concern and builds on expensive exposure assessment, population susceptibility and close response.
3 Environmental justice based assessment in cases that health impacts occur that farmers are not aware as in effects of pesticides.
There by implementing the above framework ,a sustainable city can be achieved as urban agriculture helps to improve microclimate by reducing temperature and increasing humidity, conserve soils , improve nutrient cycling and improve water management,
All in all the prospects for urban farming is good in many parts of the world. How ever it is crucial that planners start recognizing the importance of urban farming in the rich mix of activities that characterize modern cities. As the world urbanizes, the greater food self reliance using nutrient accumulation in our cities must be regarded as an important aspect of sustainable urban development
Urban agriculture-- such a sexy topic, is the least heard of. It shows it has been well thought out by the poster.
One significant aspect of UA can contribute, I could think of, is biodiversity conservation. Imagine people come to Salaya campus to visit one of the most sophisticated and rare species of herbal medicinal plants; paddy fields growing native/indigenous rice varieties; orchards with native/local fruit trees, and the list can go on.
To think of it, this could be one of the better topic for research. The literature part alone can be developed into a good paper, as very little work, as I understand it,in this particular area has been done.
Let's hear more about UA from our colleagues.
Urban farming is an important step in creating self-sufficient cities. As governments and city dwellers acknowledge the excessive pollutants flowing through the soils and waterways they may act to better maintain local and regional ecosystems. City based resource dependency and a disconnection from rural areas creates the risks associated with urban farming.
The growth of urban farms in Delhi had many positive impacts for those involved. The price for their produce is higher and there is less cost involved in refrigeration and transport. Moreover, urban farms provide a source of income for those who lack education and access to service sector employment (Hardoy 2001).
Waste management is another important service that is provided by ecosystems, but cannot continue at the current rate of impact. Cities externalize their impact on the rural areas, and fail to recognize that their interdependence on the services provided by agricultural areas. Watershed management serves the interest of the rural and urban areas. The value of preserving local watersheds is evident in the extensive analysis conducted in the Catskills region in the U.S.A., “…for less than $2 billion the watershed can be restored fully, at a saving relative to a technological fix of at least $4 billion – perhaps as much as $10 billion if operating costs are included” (Heal 2000).
Policy level and government initiatives cannot continue to externalize the costs of city life, depositing toxic waste in impoverished communities (Hardoy 2001). Dangerous toxins are still being emitted into our environment in the name of economic progress, under the watchful eye of scientists, academics and political leaders. Rural and urban areas need to develop self-sufficiency not only of economy, but waste disposal and related recycling. In the past, there appeared to be an unlimited supply of natural resources and the biosphere was more resistant to natural disaster and milder forms of pollution. However, with massive population growth and polluting technologies (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) it is becoming increasing difficult to procure untainted supplies of food and water.
We are slowly coming to understand that our power to manipulate the natural environment in the rural areas means decreasing quality of life in the city. Urban farms provide a basis for biodiversity protection and ecological enhancement of city life. As the city gains greater self-sufficiency the quality of agricultural products and condition of ecosystem services will improve.
Camiseta personalizada is spam mail and I am removing his comments!!! Please do not place your information on our website, we are trying to engage in education debate!
What is difference between a city and an anthill? A city or an anthill, where habitants are protected from weather and predator and where presents of living things, working places, transportation systems, food storage capabilities (Melosi 2001). The idea that urban can produce agricultural products is highly feasible. Urban agriculture (UA) and Urban Peri-Agriculture (UPA) are the way of creating synergy between urban and rural systems. The cores of this concept are:
-Regular agriculture becomes urban agriculture under the influence of urban growth.
-Urban residents become famers because they find and utilize the niches within the urban constructions (Aoyagi, et al 1998).
Why do UA and UPA become extremely important for urban life in particular and for society in general? Considering the benefits, the negative affects of UA and UPA is a prerequisite in order to figure out sollutions to deal with their impacts. Firstly, UA and UPA have many benefits that are discussed below:
-Providing food. Thereby, playing an important role in order to reduce food insecurity issue.
-Creating new jobs for municipal women, children, and the elderly. In the other hand, poverty alleviation tends to be addressed.
-Reducing environment pollution. Because wastewater and organic waste is recycled and utilized separately. By the appearance of a large of vegetable farming in the city, or forestry farming in term of Urban Peri-Agirculture (UPA), the urban environment quality is considerably improved.
-Transportations and infrastructures fee is reduced. Because agricultural products are directly transpered to the consumers in the city.
UA and UPA have been applied in many countries, and they achieved a fairly success.The participation of 50.000 to 550.000 people in UA and UPA project in Argentina; and in the city of Harae by the year 1992, green cultivation was doubled with 2 years and without negative affects (FAO 1998). Those are successful symbolic examples concerning to UA and UPA’s feasibility.
However, UA or UPA have possible risks. Environmental and health risks from inappropriate agriculture and aqua cultural practices are a reality. Those risks arise from the inappropriate or excessive use of agricultural inputs (pesticides, nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals) which may leach or runoff into drinking water sources; microbial contamination; air pollution. Moreover, UA and UPA may raise a competition issues for land, water, energy and labor in the city and among cities (FAO 1998).
How to develop UA and UPA, and reduce their negative affects effectively is difficult question. In my understanding, to develop UA and UPA in sustainable way, some solutions must be addressed:
-Distinct and planning efforts are need for any UA or UPA management.
-Data and research in term of UA and UPA should be improved.
-Multi-level responsibilities, and incorporations among stakehoders, citizens, NGOs, private sectors have to be achieved.
-Types of vegetations or animals should be carefully considered depending on the characteristics of each city (urban society, geography, politics, environmental capacity, etc).
Aoyagi is a good friend of mine from Japan. We did research collaboration for two consecutive years, a couple of years ago. We tried to compare good cases of community-based natural resource and environment management (CBNREM.
Her case was just what urban agriculture you are discussing. The Japanese case which Aoyai et al under took was interesting and looked strange to me at first. But after hearing and reading her and her colleague's work, I was intrigued by it.
What her case showed was that the urban-based people in one of the Japanese city (I can't remember, the whole community organize them selves to help support a few real farmers in the suburban area just to keep the farms going, as the factories kept overtaking farm lands.
They offer to buy rice and vetables from these few farmers with good price in order to keep these farmers to sustain their livelihood without having to worry about be forced to abandon their lands.
On weekends, families, children in particular, often come to visit this "real" farm/agriculture. It has increasing become a ecological/natural space for the new generations of urban population.
I thought this story might interest some of you. Her works and mine are available at website of IGES (Institute of Global Environmental Strategies, Japan.
Urban agriculture is a very interesting topic. As we mentioned above about the significant advantages of UA, I am still wondering about the potential risks of UA to human health and urban environment, especially about heavy metal and microbial contamination issues. Sandya, if you were an urban planner as well as an agriculturalist, what are kinds of vegetations (in term of food and non-food products) you want to focus on in order to reduce those impacts? And what do you think about the relationship between UA and UPA? Should we concentrate on UPA rather than UA or vice versa?
In response to Sanya’s writing, not only urban but also peri –urban agriculture occurs within and surroundings of cities throughout the world and also includes livestock, fisheries forestry and ecosystems as well. It is estimated that about 800 million urban residents worldwide are involved in income- earning and/or food-production and two- thirds of urban and peri -urban population are engaged in agriculture( Issues in urban agriculture,Spotlight/1999, a FAO Magazine).So this supports your saying that urban agriculture provides opportunities to reduce poverty and provide food security. But ,in my opinion, it does less to social inclusion of the urban poor as these people certainly lack land property in the urban area. The rural poor work for the urban land lord to meet their day to day need, so how it could lead to an equitable sustainability?? On the other hand the farmers are exposed to hazardous chemicals and fertilizers as there is competition to grow more. Government has to allocate more money to managing urban wastes and other urbanization related ailments. And thus the poor in the rural areas are supposed to suffer in many ways. So why not we also focus on people to encourage them to live in and develop their own rural areas?? I agree on what you have mentioned but I also want to scratch the other side of the coin.
The anonymous blogger is Bhogendra
Population growth leads to several problems, such as expand urbanization, increased food demand. Urban agriculture is becoming an important issue. The case of China points to the need for urban agriculture for food security in a fast growing and rapidly urbanizing country (Chen, 2007).
Two issues that I want to share.
One, urban planning in developing countries is very weak (also weak in many developed countries). Enger and Smith state that until recently there has been little coordinated effort in urban planning largely because many different political units are involved. In order to have safe urban agriculture there needs to be good cooperation among urban planners and agriculture sectors, where there is traditionally little understanding. Urban farm-land needs to be properly zoned and protected for producing different kinds of food according to air and soil quality. Most land use decisions are still based on short-term economic benefits, ignoring the potential for relatively low profit activities, such as agriculture.
Two, if you can succeed at establishing strong urban planning in corporation with agriculture, then many possibilities will open up. One possibility is the use of partially treated urban waste water (which is high in nutrients) to irrigate agriculture crops in peri-urban areas (Harleman and Murcott, 1999). Composting of urban kitchen waste would also be a way to reduce urban waste volume and at the same time create fertilizer. However, concentration of heavy metals must be monitor to ensure that both waste water and compose are safe for agriculture use. This also requires corporation with public health and sanitation authorities.
The most difficult issue is how to get people to agree, and to plan ahead to make the system work.
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